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Tools from the stone age

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This is a bâton de commandement/spear straightener/horse bridle found in the Dordogne region.
Photo: T. Prideaux, 'Cro-Magnon Man'

A display of various tools of the Palaeolithic, and the Russian text to go with it.

Source: Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, Russia.

Photo: Vladimir Gorodnjanski 2007

Text:

1 Иглы

2 ОРУДИЯ труда и охоты

3 "Шары"

4 «Начальнические жезлы»

Рог северного оленя, бивень мамонта, кость

«Начальнические жезлы»

В позднем палеолите были очень широко распространены предметы, назначение которых долгое время вызывало споры среди ученых. Они изготавливались, как правило, из рога северного оленя, отрезанного несколько выше или ниже глазного отростка и имели отверстие в утолщенной части рога. Обычно такие предметы называют «начальническими жезлами». Эти вещи получили свое название еще в годы первых раскопок пещер южной Франции, и были признаны знаком достоинства «начальников первобытных племён»,так как они часто богато украшались орнаментом и изображениями животных. Данное тогда название. сохранилось в научном обиходе, хотя такое толкование этих вещей не пользуется теперь признанием. Более правдоподобно объяснение, поддерживаемое этнографами, которые считают «начальнические жезлы» предметами, близкими к орудиям, широко распространенным среди многих народностей севера Сибири (эскимосы, например часто украшали их резьбой и скульптурными изображениями). Эти орудия служили главным образом для выправления древка стрелы или копья. У других народностей, как например, у рыболовецкого и охотничьего населения низовьев Оби в Западной Сибири еще в XIX веке подобныt инструменты использовались для разминания ремней. В настоящее время назначение «жезлов» подтверждено экспериментальным путем: они служили выпрямителями для выправления стержневидных изделий, которые со временем изгибаются. Употреблялись они и для разминания ремней. Некоторые «жезлы» имеют следы вторичного употребления в качестве ударного и отжимного ретушера (отбойника).

1 Needles

2 Instruments for work and hunting

3 "Spheres" (Perhaps for bolas, or used for grinding ochre or grains? - Don)

4 "Bâtons de Commandement"

Horn of northern deer, Tusk of the mammoth, bone.

«Bâtons de Commandement»

These "Bâtons de Commandement" from the late Palaeolithic have been a source of debate for a long time amongst scientists, and are widely distributed. They were made, as a rule, from the horn of a reindeer, and have had an aperture bored into the horn. They received their name when they were first discovered in the caves of southern France, and were thought to be staffs of authority of the "chiefs of primitive tribes". They are often richly decorated with abstract designs and images of animals.

The name was kept, even though it is now recognised that they were in fact spear straighteners, and are widely distributed amongst many nationalities, including Northern Siberia. Eskimos have frequently decorated them with carved lines and sculptural images.

They were used to straighten arrows and spears, either wood or antler and ivory, or darts thrown using an atlatl. They were used, for example, by the fishing and hunting population of the lower Ob River in Western Siberia in the 19th Century. Some staffs have traces of other uses for retouching flint tools.

One of the instruments shown here may have been used as a hammer.

A display of various tools of the Palaeolithic.

Source: Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, Russia.

Photo: Vladimir Gorodnjanski 2007

Canecaude (Aude) - Magdalénien moyen, 14 230 ± 160 Crochet de propulseur en forme de mammouth (longueur: 8.7 cm). Le proboscidien des temps glaciaires, rarement représenté sur ce type d'objet, se reconnaît aisément à sa silhouette générale -crâne en forme de tiare, dos voûté et plongeant-, à sa trompe, dont ne subsiste que la partie préhensile, à ses membres massifs et à ses larges pieds, à ses yeux globuleux cernés de grosses paupières et à la notation du pelage ; toutefois, les défenses, assimilées à de longues cornes surprennent par leur implantation aberrante, sans doute due à la configuration du bois de renne utilisé comme support. Il faut préciser que cette grotte du versant méridional de la Montagne Noire n'a pas livré de restes de mammouth et que le renne formait 90 % du stock des espèces chassées.

Canecaude (Aude) - middle Magdalenien, 14 230 ± 160 BP. Hook of atlatl (or spear thrower) in the shape of a mammoth (length: 8.7 cm). The mammoth is seldom represented on this type of object, but is recognized easily by its general silhouette - the domed head, arched and plunging back, with its tusk, of which not all remains, with its massive legs and its broad feet, its encircled globulous eyes. It should be mentioned that this cave of the southernmost slope of the Black Mountain did not have any remains of mammoths and that reindeer formed 90 % of the hunted species.

Sculpture de mammouth sur un fragment de propulseur en bois de renne du Magdalénien de Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne). Photo H. Delporte.

Sculpture of a mammoth on part of a spear thrower, made out of reindeer antler, of Magdalenian age, from Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne). Photo H. Delporte.

This appears to be the other side of a specimen in the British Museum described below, although the photo here does not show the hook inserted into the back as described for the British Museum specimen. It is worth having a look at the image on the British Museum site.

Text below adapted from

http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ1369

From the rockshelter of Montastruc, Tarn-et-Garonne, France

Carved from a reindeer antler

Spear throwers came into use about 18,000 years ago in western Europe. They consist of a straight handle with a hook at one end. The bottom of the spear fits against the hook and the spear shaft and spear thrower handle are held together with the hook end by the shoulder. Launching the spear in this way sends it with more force and speed and across a longer distance than if it was simply thrown by hand.

The hook ends of spear throwers are frequently decorated with an animal. This example from Montastruc shows a mammoth. It is the only known example which has a hole for an eye (which probably held an insert of bone or stone). The hook is also unusual because it is an ancient repair. The original hook carved from the antler broke off and was mended by cutting a slot on the back and inserting a bone or antler replacement. The mammoth's tusks appear on each side of the handle, most of which was broken off in ancient times.

Length: 12.4 cm

An engraving of South African Hottentots trapping elephant. Other methods included driving into swampy ground, which may have been practised in East Africa a million years ago.

Photo: Man before history by John Waechter

The Problem of the 'Bridles'

All photos and text below concerning the bridles/bâtons come from the excellent book 'Secrets of the Ice Age' (1980) by Evan Hadingham.

A bâton de commandement (left) from La Madeleine in the Dordogne region, and (right) an undecorated example from the Russian Ukraine, shown here roughly at the same scale. (Note the two holes of different sizes in the left hand example. Are these different sized holes for different sized spears, or are they different sizes for purposes of a bridle? Don)

Although the cave bears that prowled the pine forests of Érd near modern Budapest during the Mousterian period are not likely to have been tamed, there were other species that were far more amenable to human control. At the turn of the century an excavator of a prehistoric site (La Quina, in the Charente district of southwest France) noticed unusual traces of wear on the front incisor teeth of horses dug up from the Mousterian layers. These marks resembled those on modern teeth that result from the "tic" or nervous chewing habit of horses shut up in captivity, where boredom drives them to nibble incessantly at hard objects.

A few years later, in 1915, a lengthy study of some 16 000 modern horses was published, comparing the teeth of those kept tethered up with others roaming in relative freedom on the North American prairies. This study concluded that the nervous "tic" and its associated pattern of tooth wear is never present on animals free to wander at will. Could it be, then, that some Mousterian communities kept corrals of horses at certain times of the year, facilitating a control over animals normally undreamed of for this remote period or for many thousands of years afterward? It may be significant that the excavator of La Quina also found no less than seventy-six of the mysterious stone spheres in the Mousterian layers that, if they formed parts of bolas (as suggested earlier), could have been used to bring down and capture animals alive. In any case, the problem of the peculiar tooth wear brought to light sixty years ago deserves to be reexamined with modern techniques.

A more startling claim, first advanced in the 1870s and revived recently by a British scholar, Paul Bahn, is that we may be able to recognize actual animal bridles among Paleolithic bone objects. This may seem a very far-fetched idea indeed, considering that horses are conventionally thought to have been domesticated in Asia sometime after 3 000 B.c. The arguments concern a strange type of object known by the picturesque term "commanders' maces" (bâton de commandement), which nevertheless do not seem to have been items of military insignia. These objects take the form of pierced staves of reindeer horn or bone, with a hole smoothly worked all the way through the branching point of the antler, usually shaped to a T or Y outline. bâtons without any form of surface decoration are known as early as the Aurignacian period from sites in the Dordogne, and they continued to be manufactured in increasing numbers right into the final centuries of the Magdalenian. As in the case of so many other forms of decorated bone work, elaborate animal carvings do not appear regularly until the middle Magdalenian, When depictions of horses are the most common theme. During this period, prehistoric engravers concentrated more attention and accomplishment on the bâtons than on any other item of equipment apart from the spear-thrower, which suggests that by this time the curious rods had acquired a special significance. The Magdalenian carvers seem to have delighted in the difficulties of decorating the narrow, rounded surfaces with a fine tracery of complex and well-proportioned animal forms,, Today, we can only grasp the total design when it is "decoded" in a single flat plane with the help of a cast of the entire rolled-out surface.

The quality of this carving and the fragility of some of the actual bâtons themselves make it difficult to believe that certain examples could ever have played a practical function. The idea of a sacred, symbolic wand may not, then, be improbable. During the seventeenth century, sorcerers among the Lapp reindeer herders used an identical type of object to beat a magic drum while they were in the midst of prophetic trances. Nevertheless, the signs of wear on some bâtons, especially around the inner edge of the hole, have inspired many ingenious, practical theories. One idea compares the prehistoric bâtons with identical objects worn by some recent Eskimo hunters as a kind of necktie under the throat. A more likely suggestion, one that is widely accepted by archaeologists, is that the bâtons were used as an aid in correcting the natural curvature of antler and ivory shafts intended for use as arrows and spears. According to one reconstruction, the shaft material was first softened over heat and steam; then one end of the shaft was wedged in the hole and the rest bound tightly under tension against the long arm of the bâton until it became straight. However, the only researcher to study the traces of wear around the holes concluded that the marks resulted from the friction of a soft strap (so could they be handles for slings, this investigator asked?). Note: I wonder if these bâtons have been found in pairs? Or are they like the ubiquitous thongs (flip-flop rubber sandals patterned after Japanese foootwear) washed up on Australian beaches, and only ever found singly? Don

Horse bridles of a traditional type from Sardinia with wooden parts superficially resembling the prehistoric bâtons.

Yet another theory-the one that chiefly concerns us here-is that the bâtons formed the solid cheek pieces of leather or fibre harnesses that were slipped over the heads of horses or reindeer. In practical terms, such a use is quite convincing, for exactly similar antler pieces were traditionally employed in Sardinia for controlling horses through pressure exerted on the muzzle. Similarly, the Samoyeds of Siberia exercised some sort of control over the domesticated reindeer that pulled their sledges by tugging at the reins joined to simple head collars through the holes in pierced antler staves. Despite the feasibility of the bridle theory, there is no obvious reason why we should prefer it to any of the other ingenious ideas advanced to account for the bâtons; indeed, to accept it would mean adopting the unconventional view that horses or reindeer were domesticated by Paleolithic hunters.

Some fascinating and ambiguous evidence provides unexpected support for the bridle theory, however. Like most of the early antiquarians who had excavated in the Ice Age caves, Édouard Piette for many years regarded the horse and reindeer bones he recovered as simply representing the remains of wild animals brought down by traditional hunting methods. In 1889, however, he startled the prehistorians assembled at an international congress by delivering an address on "The Question of Reindeer Domestication," in which he maintained that the high achievements of the Paleolithic engravers and toolmakers must be the product of a stable, sedentary society, based on an economy of domesticated animals. What had changed his mind? Piette explained that he had found several carvings at Mas d'Azil where the horses have a noseband. The semi-domestication of these animals is thus well established. Nothing proves that man harnessed them, nor made them pull loads, nor gave milk, but why should they not have raised them in herds and have known how to lead them?'

Piette's views, stated modestly enough at the conference, became increasingly fervent as the years passed and as more of the curious "cut-out" carved horse heads came to light. The climax came in 1893, when an engraved bone piece was discovered in the cave of St. Michel d'Arudy, situated, like Piette's famous site at Le Mas d'Azil, in the foothills of the Pyrenees. (Photo at left) This spirited carving shows a horse head oddly divided up into panels, with an abstract row of chevrons partly covering the lower cheek. This, for Piette, was incontrovertible evidence for the existence of head collars and the final proof of his domestication theory. His views, however, awoke bitter and at times unreasonable opposition among the leading prehistorians of the day. Even the youthful Abbé Breuil, who considered the problem at length, eventually changed his mind and decided against the reality of the bridles. He examined the entire range of engraved bone silhouettes and supported the idea that the curious lines and panels carved on the horse muzzles represented stylized impressions of their coat markings or muscular structure. Because the weight of contemporary archaeological opinion fell against his theories, Piette's views were largely ignored in the years following his death in 1906.

Reconsidering the problem of the bone horse heads today, it must be admitted that there is a considerable variety in these depictions, whatever their inspiration. Some bear no traces at all of the supposed bridles, while the clarity and detail with which the "cheek pieces" and "nose bands" appear on the other silhouettes vary considerably. One of the most delicate of the engravings was found lying on the surface of a cave floor near Arudy in 1975, only a few hundred meters from the site of the 1893 discovery. This new chance find has shaded lines and panels in exactly the same positions as on the St. Michel muzzle, although they are depicted much more faintly and certainly could pass as indications of the natural horse hair. Because of the peculiar, stiff style in which all the Pyrenean profiles are carved, a question mark will always hang over the exact significance of the patterns on their muzzles.

All the images on the right come from Le Mas d'Azil except Lortet at the top and the 1975 discovery at Espalungue, Arudy at the bottom.

Shown is a carved stone from La Marche, Vienne, Western France, showing a horse head with numerous lines engraved over it, including some that closely resemble the outline of a halter.

Carving from La Madeleine in the Dordogne that probably served as the weighted end of a spear thrower. Note the peculiar bridle pattern on the muzzle. This is a good argument against similar patterns on horses being representations of halters.

All photos and text above come from the excellent book 'Secrets of the Ice Age' (1980) by Evan Hadingham.

We now digress a little, to show an intermediate stage in the development of the bridle from the Pazyrk people.

Pazyryk - Пазарык

A Pazyryk horseman, circa 300 BC.

The Pazyryk (Russian: Пазарык) is the name of an ancient nomadic people who lived in the Altai Mountains lying in Siberian Russia south of the modern city of Novosibirsk, near the borders of China, Kazakhstan and Mongolia. In this part of the Ukok Plateau, many ancient Bronze Age barrow-like tomb mounds of larch logs covered over by large cairns of boulders and stones have been found. These spectacular burials of the Pazyryk culture closely resemble those of the Scythian people to the west. The term kurgan, a word of Turkic origin, is generally used to describe such log-barrow burials. This archaeological site on the Ukok Plateau is included in the Golden Mountains of Altai UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Pazyryks were horse-riding pastoral nomads of the steppe and some may have accumulated great wealth through horse-trading with merchants in Persia, India and China.

Photo and text: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazyryk

Text below from: http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Altaians-Orientation.html

Altaian is the general name for a group of Turkic peoples living in the region of the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia in the Altai Republic.

The Altaians constitute a group of related mountain peoples living beside the streams of the Altai complex of mountain ranges. This complex consists of the chief water-divide ranges, the South Altai, the Inner Altai, and the East Altai; the Mongolian Altai is connected to this mountain complex, rising to the southeast of the Siberian Altai region. The Altai system is located in the central part of southern Siberia, with Mongolia to the east and Kazakhstan to the south; it lies between 48° and 54° N and between 83° and 90° E. The mountains are of moderate elevation, with several reaching 4,500 meters; those higher than 3,000 meters are snowcapped throughout the year. The Altaians live in the broad plateaus, steppes, and valleys of the ranges.

The climate is continental, with considerable temperature swings, but is modified by the effect of the mountains, which cause a winter temperature inversion. In effect, the Altai forms an island of higher temperatures in winter than those found in the Siberian taiga to the north or in the Central Asian and Mongolian steppes to the south and east. The mean January temperature of the Chuya steppe, in the southeast of the region, is -31° C; winter temperatures fall as low as -48° C. The mountains form a nodal point for the gathering of precipitation. The main rainfall occurs in July and August, with a secondary and smaller period of rain in the late autumn. The western Altai has a mean annual rainfall of over 50 centimeters; the east is drier, receiving about 40 centimetres per year, or even less, and forms a transition to the more arid Mongolian steppe, farther east.

The Altai is rich in lakes and streams. The chief lakes of the region are Marka Kul in the south and Teletsk in the central part of the Altai region. In nearby parts of Siberia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan there are much larger lakes: Zaysan Nur, Kara Usu, Ubsu Nur, and Kulunda. The Siberian rivers Ob, Irtysh, and Yenisei have headwaters in the Altai Mountains. The most important rivers within the Altai are the Biya, Katun, Bukhtarma, Kondoma, Ursul, Charysh, Kan, Sema, and Mayma.

Pazyryk Bridles

Рис. 32. Уздечка из кургана No. 5, Пазырык. 5—4 вв. до н. э.
Рис. 33. Уздечка из кургана No. 5, Пазырык. V—IV вв. до н. э.

Bridles from Mound No. 5, Pazyryk, 5th - 4th Century BC

Photo and text: СКИФЫ Тамара Т. Райс, Scythians by Tamara T. Rice
My thanks to Vladimir Gorodnjanski for access to this resource.

Рис. 34. Седельные ремни с ажурными узорами из кургана No. 1, Пазырык. V в. до н. э.
Рис. 35. Седло из кургана No. 1, Пазырык. V в. до н. э.

Fig. 34. Straps with openwork designs from mound No. 1, Pazyryk. 5th century BC.
Fig. 35. Saddle from mound No. 1, Pazyryk. 5th century BC.

Excavations and the resulting archaeological materials from the south of Russia shed appreciable light on the way that Scythians harnessed and decorated their horses. However the earlier archaeological materials from the South of Russia were not of good enough quality to show the complete technical details.

Here in Pazyryk were unearthed complete sets of harnesses, and the method used by Altaians to equip their saddle horses, as well as showing the fine details of their equipment.

Photo and text: СКИФЫ Тамара Т. Райс, Scythians by Tamara T. Rice
My thanks to Vladimir Gorodnjanski for access to this resource.

Comparison between the bits and the straps on the heads of horses from Pazyryk and similar areas in the European part of the steppe, shows that they were essentially similar.

Consequently it seems more than probable that although the more easily disintegrated parts of the harness were not recovered from Western deposits, still they were very similar to those in Pazyryk.

However, both in the east and the western plains, bits have consisted of parts reminiscent of the modern snaffle. A snaffle bit is the most common type of bit used while riding horses. It consists of a bit mouthpiece with a ring on either side and acts with direct pressure. In Pazyryk bridles consisted of thongs for the nose, cheeks, forehead and ears, and all of this was fastened with a buckle, located on the side of the head of the horse, similar to a halter.

Pazyryk bridle

Parts of a snaffle.
Photo: Wikipedia

Pazyryk bridle

Parts of a halter.
Photo: Wikipedia

The bridle was used in Assyria in the first half of the first millenium was also, probably, the same as were invented by the first equestrians.

In Pazyryk, a metal plate was located on the forehead of the horse, held by leather thongs. This plate, the thongs on the nose and cheeks, all crossings of thongs and even the thongs themselves were generously decorated with geometrical patterns and images of animals. They were punched into the thongs, or were appliqués of various materials.

All the thongs or straps were made of excellent leather, carefully dressed, richly decorated, and there were frequently golden plates, or parts covered with gold or lead foil.

Click on the image to see a close up

Small spoon in mammoth ivory from New Avdeevo
Photo: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

Click on the top image to see a close up

(above) Fragments of tops of spatulas with oval widening of the edges, New Avdeevo

(below) Spatula with top with oval widening of edges and widening under the head. Drawing of the lowest spatula in the photo above.

Photo: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

Click on the image to see a close up

Implement with hatted type top, New Avdeevo

Photo: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

Click on the images to see a close up

Subtriangular zoomorphic points, ivory. These particular examples have a 'loop' on the side. The two images on the right side of the image on the left are the front and back of a particularly fine specimen. Note the cross sections shown in the drawing.

Photo: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

kostenki spadehead
The decorated head of a spade from Kostenki 1.

Photo: Archaeology of the USSR - The Palaeolithic of the USSR.

My thanks to Vladimir Gorodnjanski for access to this resource.

Click on the image to see a close up

Table of bone artifacts and art objects from Avdeevo and Kostenki

Photo: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

Flint tools of the Kostenki-Avdeevo culture

Site	Avd1-I	Avd1-I	Avd2-1I	Avd2-1I	K-1 3	K-1 3
Category	Quantity	%	Quantity	%	Quantity	%
1. Backed scaled knives	744	27.4	505	10.3	603	16.5
2. Shouldered points	174	6.4	353	7.2	465	12.7
3. Leaf points	23	0.8	76	1.5	91	2.5
4. Backed blades	288	8.47	469	9.5	368	10
5. Scaled pieces	18	0.6	-	-	-	-
6. Burins	622	22.9	879	17.9	969	26.4
7. Scrapers	54	1.9	56	1.3	230	6
8. Variant points	35	1.2	224	4.5	61	1.6
9. Truncated flakes and blades	22	0.8	58	1.2	96	2.6
10. Borers and drills	19	0.7	54	1.1	41	1.1
11. Denticulate and notched pieces	21	0.7	133	2.7	90	2.4
12. Sidescraper-like pieces	30	1.1	42	0.9	10	0.3
13. Pieces and flakes with retouch	550	20.7	1546	31.4	540	14.7
14. (Combined) pieces	157	5.7	363	7.4	100	3
15. Variant tools	23	0.8	164	3.3	-	-
16. TOTAL	2720	100	4922	100	3664	100

Note: 1. 1946-1949 collection; 2. 1979-86 collection, the excavations are still in progress; 3. V.I. Belyaeva's data, 1979; 4. The data are not cited.

Data: M. Gvozdover, 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters'

Decorated needlecases 1- 5 from New Avdeevo, 6 from Old Avdeevo

Photo: 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters: The Finds from Avdeevo' by Mariana Gvozdover

Decorated needlecases (drawn) 1- 5 from New Avdeevo, 6 from Old Avdeevo

Photo: 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters: The Finds from Avdeevo' by Mariana Gvozdover

Decorated adze handles 1 - 4, 6 from New Avdeevo, 5 from Old Avdeevo

Photo: 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters: The Finds from Avdeevo' by Mariana Gvozdover

Decorated adze handles (drawn) 1 - 4, 6 from New Avdeevo, 5 from Old Avdeevo

Photo: 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters: The Finds from Avdeevo' by Mariana Gvozdover

Decoration elements from the Kostenki culture which also includes Avdeevo.

1. slanting cross and its variants;
2. short transverse line or stroke;
3. variants of wedge-shaped notching;
3d. with staggered interval, zigzag in background;
4. zigzag;
5. herringbone;
6. slanting checkwork.

Photo: 'Art of the Mammoth Hunters: The Finds from Avdeevo' by Mariana Gvozdover

The oldest known firestone. This crystal of iron pyrite was found in a Belgian cave, and has been dated at 10 000 years ago. The deep groove is from being repeatedly struck by a piece of flint to produce sparks to light a fire in tinder. No other easily obtainable combination will produce sparks hot enough to start a fire - two flints struck together will not produce a usable spark, for instance. Photo: T. Prideaux, 'Cro-Magnon Man'

Very characteristic fossil of the late Magdalenian culture is the barbed harpoon head, with both single and double rows of barbs. These are from Le Souci, Dordogne.

Photo: G. Clark, 'The Stone Age Hunters'

Le fossile le plus caractéristique de la culture Magdalénienne tardive est le harpon à barbelure, avec une ou plusieurs rangées de 'dents'. Ceux-ci ont été trouvés au Souci, Dordogne.

Photo: G. Clark, 'The Stone Age Hunters'

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